Citizenship
and/as Thought
Scientific
literacy and deliberative democracy in The Netherlands
Introduction
Like
every
country
that
has
agreed
upon
the
so-called
Lisbon
Agenda,
The
Netherlands
have
pledged
to
become
΅the
most
competitive
and
dynamic
knowledge-driven
economy
by
2010”
(European
Commission,
2000).
As
much
as
the
failure
to
reach
this
high-staken
goal
has
by
now
been
acknowledged,
the
language
of
'Lisbon'
still
permeates
Dutch
educational
discourse.
During
the
largest
part
of
the
last
decade
the
educational
means
contributing
most
to
international
competitiveness
were
sought
in
the
large-scale
introduction
of
ICT,
'straightening'
the
column
of
vocational
training
and
– albeit
hesitantly
– the
reform
of
general
secondary
education
along
the
lines
of
constructivist
thought
and
instruction.
Whereas
the
former
two
policies
can
be
seen
to
have
succeeded,
the
latter
thrust
has
quite
suddenly
come
to
a
halt.
Widespread
unease
with
state-directed
school
reforms
among
teachers,
parents
and
other
stakeholders
may
have
played
quite
a
part
here,
but
essentially,
'Lisbon'
seems
to
have
been
beaten
by
'Lisbon';
it's
under
the
spell
of
PISA,
TIMMS
and
other
international
rankings
that
the
Dutch
government
has
recently
left
the
path
of
structural
educational
reform
in
order
to
plea
now
for
a
strengthening
of
the
'core
subjects'
– at
the
expense
of
the
'soft'
ones
-
and
to
promote
'talent
development'
and
'excellence'.
Even
if we deem the explicit goal of this new orthodoxy– catching up
with students from East Asia – quite questionable, we do second to
the means chosen. In order for Dutch general secondary education to
become indeed more meritocratic we believe, however, that the
curriculum in secondary schools ought not be more restricted, but
instead be made more instructive. Loosely reorganized around a
broadened concept of 'scientific literacy', so we hope to show, any
secondary school could develop a curriculum that enhances the
intellectual agility of all their students, including the 'excellent'
ones. The rationale behind this mere shift of focus is not only that
it leaves the existing structure of the school and its curriculum
largely intact, but also, and even more so, that it explicitly aims
to link a possibly more adaptive approach to the instruction of
individuals with the goal of educating citizens inhabiting a
pluralist democracy.
In
order
to
unfold
this
both
ambitious
and
rather
modest
scheme
we
will
first
address
the
continuing
need
for
educational
reform,
postmodern
society
asking
for
individuals
operating
at
different
cognitive
levels
than
Dutch
secondary
education
now
seems
able
to
produce
(par.
1).
Along
this
part
of
the
route
we
will
argue
that
both
the
economic
goals
as
stipulated
by
the
Lisbon-agenda
and
the
socio-political
aims
as
stated
by
liberal
theorists
of
citizenship
are
all
in
effect
epistemic
issues,
such
that
can
and
ought
to
addressed
in
terms
of
deeper,
more
profound
ways
of
learning.
Further
along
the
course
(par.
2)
we
will
show
how
a
program
for
general
scientific
literacy
could
dovetail
into
any
(subject-centered)
school
curriculum,
thus
promoting
the
development
of
meta-cognitive
and
higher
order
thinking
skills
in
individual
children,
a
sense
of
ownership
among
the
teachers
and
a
healthy
public
sphere
for
society
at
large
(par.
2).
We
do
not
– again
– want
to
prescribe
teachers
how
they
should
organize
which
educational
reform
in
what
ways.
The
best
we
can
hope
to
achieve,
however,
is
to
show
how
a
mere
change
of
focus
could
help
them
develop
a
curriculum
that
does
take
the
'grammar
of
schooling',
the
needs
of
different
learners
and
the
future
of
democracy
all
into
into
serious
account.
- Knowledges and/as procedures
Recently,
Van
Rossum
and
Hamer
(2010a
&
2010b)
have
shown
that
the
majority
of
Dutch
students
entering
higher
education
persistently
show
to
have
rather
shallow
notions
of
what
'knowledge'
is
and
what
'learning'
comprises
of.
Combining
a
number
of
models
of
epistemological
growth
or
development
into
their
own
'taxonomy
of
epistemic
learning',
and
applying
this
grid
to
analyze
a
rich,
longitudinal
data-set,
they
claim
that
only
a
tiny
faction
of
students
conceive
of
'learning'
as
something
other
than
reproducing
or
applying
facts.
Hence,
the
majority
of
undergraduate
students
seems
to
have
the
implicit
and
pretty
naive
notion
that
'knowledge'
is
something
that
is
simply
'out
there'.
Again,
it's
only
a
minority
of
students
– and
teachers
(!)
– that
show
able
to
match
explicit,
more
mature
epistemological
concepts
and
concerns
with
deliberate
choices
for
life
and
strategies
for
learning
(Van
Rossum
&
Hamer
2010a
&
2010b,
comp.
Prosser
&
Trigwell
1999).
'Translated'
into
the
more
commonly
used
categories
of
Bloom's
(revised)
taxonomy
of
learning,
these
results
seem
to
show
that
secondary
education
in
The
Netherlands,
even
at
pre-university
levels,
does
not,
or
not
sufficiently
help
adolescents
to
develop
so-called
higher
order
thinking
skills.
Although
philosophy
has
been
introduced
as
a
subject
to
be
opted
for
in
the
higher
Forms
of
both
A-
and
B-levels1,
pre-academic
training
seems
– in
general
– unable
to
foster
critical
and
creative
thinking
that
would
allow
students
to
develop
into
truly
independent
learners.
In
order
to
enhance
the
quality
of
this
general,
pre-academic
secondary
education,
the
current
Minister
of
Education
has
challenged
schools
to
become
'highly
ambitious'
and
'foster
every
talent',
stimulate
'civic
education'
to
enhance
active
participation
in
a
'multicultural
and
complex
society',
and
finally
make
the
Netherlands
'one
of
the
leading
knowledge-based
economies
in
Europe'
(Bijleveld,
2008;
2010).
In
this
paragraph,
we
hope
to
show
that
all
these
issues,
to
a
certain
extent
at
least,
are
epistemic
issues.
Addressing
them – whether as a policy-maker, a curriculum-developer, or indeed
as a teacher - could or indeed ought to encompass a reflection on the
types of 'knowledge' and 'learning' that they imply. In doing so, we
will argue that fostering critical – and higher order thinking
skills among students of every level will prove beneficial on a
macro-level - bearing, as they do, on economic, socio-cultural, moral
and political domains. The meso-level of specific schools and their
means instruction will be addressed more extensively in Par. 2.
Productive
Knowledges
The
most explicit, and probably most important aim as stated by the
Minister, is her 'Portuguese' desire to sky-rocket The Netherlands
into one of the leading 'knowledge-based economies'. Thus formulated,
this goal presupposes that 'knowledge' a) is or ought to be
fundamental for the (future) economical system of The Netherlands, a
basis that b) could and should be laid by secondary education.
The
Netherlands
are
a
post-industrial
society
in
which
commercial
and
collective
services
seem
to
outweigh
the
productivity
of
the
primary
and
secondary
sectors.
Still,
transport
and
the
production
of
agricultural
and
industrial
goods
make
up
a
more
than
considerable
part
of
the
GDP.
The
imagery
of
a
'knowledge-based
economy'
therefore
seems
to
be
more
an
extrapolation
of
recent
or
imagined
trends
than
a
description
of
any
status
quo.
On
the
one
hand
side,
this
Idea
of
a
knowledge-society
pledges
adherence
to
human
capital
theory,
which
holds
education
to
be
a
rewarding
individual
and
collective
investment,
'being
knowledgeable'
having
measurable
economic
benefits
(Dieleman
e.a.,
2005).
On
the
other
hand
side,
it
assumes
'knowledge-as-such',
and
not
'science'
or
'fundamental
research'
as
instrumental
for
economic
growth
and
competitiveness.
In
that
sense,
discourse
seems
to
reflect
the
postmodern
priority
of
applicable,
i.e.
technical,
medical,
etc.
knowledges
over
'pure'
science
and
fundamental
questions
concerning
the
production
of
knowledge
(Kwa,
2005).
This
prejudice
is
reinforced
by
the
popular
equation
of
the
'knowledge-society'
with
the
Internet-
or
web-based
society,
in
which
'knowledge-as-such'
seems
a
rather
unproblematic
and
partly
free
commodity
that,
in
order
to
be
fruitfully
exploited,
needs
to
be
managed
efficiently.
In
this
popular
version,
'knowledge'
is
not
merely
applicable,
but
has
been
degraded
to
sheer
information.
Education
for
any
(future)
'information-society,
however,
would
include
training
young
people
in
strategies
not
merely
how
to
access,
but
rather
how
to
evaluate
and
select
abundant
information
and
to
transform
the
good
bits
into
knowledge
and
understanding.
In
order
for
this
knowledge
to
be
used,
then,
'knowledge-workers'
of
the
future
should
be
able
to
not
merely
apply,
but
transform
it
– ideally
-
into
new
knowledge
and
innovative
technologies.
Education
for
a
'knowledge-based
society'
should
thus
address
not
so
much
'information-skills',
but
also,
and
even
more
so,
evaluative
and
creative
mental
operations
(Anderson
e.a.
2001;
Kuhn,
1999,
Kuhn
&
Pease,
2008).
In
order
to
surpass
the
shallow
equation
of
information
with
knowledge,
schools
would
do
wise
to
focus,
more
and
more
in-depth,
on
so-called
meta-cognitive
skills,
such
that
make
young
people
come
to
grips
with
their
own
learning
processes,
and
pay
due
attention
to
the
ways
knowledges
are
produced
in
different
segments
and
strata
of
society
(Volman
&
Van
Dam,
2004).
Political
Knowledges
These
very same goals could very well be set to make sure secondary schools
accomplish not only their instrumental – economical - tasks, but
also help fulfill their roles as a socializing institution. Faced
with the challenge to redefine the public sphere in an age of
supposedly new and supposedly cultural cleavages, many an
educationalist, like many a politician, has fallen into the trap of
overt moralism. Any attempt, however, to circumscribe the
'character' of communities, the values or virtues their inhabitants
ought to embrace, will fall short of the radical plurality of
contemporary life. If ever, common ground can and will not be found
in new norms or identities, but in shared knowledge and some basic
agreement about how to negotiate about its production and meaning.
The explicit want, then, to 'produce' democratic citizens actively
participating in a complex multicultural society suggests that
schools transmit and/or foster a body of knowledge, skills and values
that partly coincides with, partly transcends 'mere' higher order-,
metacognitive and creative thinking skills. Addressing the need for a
more than superficial 'multicultural education' for a ditto society,
Banks has argued that:
The
curriculum
in
the
schools
must
be
transformed
in
order
to
help
students
develop
the
skills
needed
to
participate
in
the
knowledge
construction
process.
[This]
transformative
curriculum
changes
the
basic
assumptions
of
the
curriculum
and
enables
students
to
view
concepts,
issues,
themes
and
problems
from
diverse
ethnic
and
cultural
perspectives
(Banks,
2006)
In
this positively relativist conception, multicultural education
includes knowledge about others' and one's own cultural heritage as
well as about the different knowledge-claims that are or can be made
within these systems. Especially the latter presupposes insight in
cultural systems and 'cultured knowledges' as well as the skill to
critically reflect upon one's own background(s) and assumptions
(ibidem, see also: Perkins e.a. 1993; Blom e.a. 2003).
Because
and in spite of the fact that the Idea of multiculturalism seems to
have lost much of his appeal, educational authorities in The
Netherlands have recently made a mildly universalist but inclusive
form of 'citizenship-education' mandatory in both primary and
secondary schools. Ever since 2005, they are held to show proof of
teaching about democratic institutions in The Netherlands and Europe,
and organize activities that are thought to enhance democratic
attitudes and skills. Matched with a mandatory history curriculum
that highlights Dutch endeavor in the past, this return to
'national-democratic' education certainly is part and parcel of the
current backlash against 'relativism' (Grever, 2006; Jonker, 2006).
One of the more progressive proponents of (post)modern moral and
civic education, the secular humanist Wiel Veugelers, tries to
overcome this incipient conservatism by focusing more on the
integrative and critical functions of 'educating democracy':
[…]
promoting
critical
democratic
citizenship
in
education
means
promoting
critical
thinking
and
critical
behavior
as
well
as
developing
solidarity.
This
requires
distance
as
well
as
involvement.
Citizenship
relates
not
only
to
the
formal
political
domain,
but
also
to
the
everyday
life
world.
Citizenship
is
concerned
with
how
a
person
stands
in
society,
the
giving
of
meaning
to
life
on
the
personal,
interpersonal
and
the
socio-political
levels
(Veugelers
&
De
Kat
2003b;
see
also:
Veugelers
2003;
Veugelers
&
De
Kat
2003a,
Leenders
&
Veugelers
2006)
Without
reference to politicized adjectives like 'critical' or
'multicultural', the American developmental psychologist Deanne Kuhn
seems to combine both these lines of thought when she asserts that:
A
more
flexible,
and
forgiving
version
of
education
for
citizenship
is
to
prepare
youths
to
engage
in
effective
debate
of
the
issues
that
arise
in
a
democratic
society
that
coexists
with
a
diversity
of
other
societies
in
a
complex
world
(...).
Students
well
educated
to
engage
in
effective
debate
are
able
to
construct
or
reconstruct,
for
themselves
the
rationales
on
which
democratic
societies
are
founded,
without
the
requirement
of
absolute
uniformity
in
the
conceptual
edifices
that
are
constructed
(Kuhn,
2005;
11-12)
In
either
of
these
three
versions,
education
for
postmodern
society
eventually
builds
upon
sophisticated,
well-informed
and
reflexive
forms
of
empathy.
Such
a
democratic
posture
does
not
merely
presuppose
some
mastery
of
epistemology,
like
Banks
argues,
but
incites
us
to
actually
transcend
from
critical
thinking
to
what
Kohlberg
c.s.
have
coined
a
post-traditional
morality
(Power,
Higgins
&
Kohlberg,
1991;
Cliteur
2010).
Moral
Knowledges
In
2001,
weeks
only
after
“9/11”,
the
German
philosopher
Jürgen
Habermas
held
a
remarkable
speech
about
the
preconditions
for
democracy
to
thrive
in
a
'post-secular'
society.
In
spite
of
what
European
intellectuals
– after
Weber
-
had
expected,
secularism
has
not
become
the
dominant
version
of
the
good
life,
but
is
actually
losing
ground
to
religious
modes
of
life
and
thought.
Politically,
there
is
no
alternative,
however,
for
a
liberal,
neutralizing
state
that
guarantees
equal
citizens
the
right
to
partake
in
political
deliberations
on
the
basis
of
secular,
i.e.
rational,
non-metaphysical
arguments.
Inasmuch
as
citizens
with
religious
leanings
are
thus
forced
to
'live'
the
separation
of
State
and
Church
in
their
minds,
secular
citizens
should
seriously
consider
the
historical,
moral
or
indeed
intrinsic
rationale
of
the
metaphysical
arguments
put
forward
by
their
fellow-citizens
(Habermas
2001;
2005).
Post-secular
citizenship
thus
demands
certain
'epistemic
stances'
(epistemische
Haltungen),
such
that
thrive
on
reflexivity
and,
as
Habermas
explained
earlier,
the
development
of
post-traditional
morality
in
a
Kohlbergian
sense
(Habermas
1995;
Power,
Higgins
&
Kohlberg
1991).
Like
in
Veugelers'
plea
for
critical
democratic
citizenship,
social
peace
eventually
rests
on
individual
citizens
learning
how
to
deliberatively
weigh
their
moral
intuitions
against
a
diversity
of
abstract
moral
principles.
Of
course
this
cognitivist
– Kantian-
conception
of
morality
has
been
contested,
not
so
much
because
its
'phallocentric'
nature
(Gilligan
1993),
but
because
it
fails
to
acknowledge
the
genetic,
emotive
and/or
intuitive
basis
of
morality.
Whether
or
not
naturalistic
assertions
are
based
on
fallacious
reasoning,
as
yet,
and
on
principle,
they
can
not
lay
the
foundation
for
justice
in
a
pluralist
democratic
society
(Habermas,
2005).
The
same
can
be
said
for
those
theorists
that
focus
on
'emotion'
or
'intuition'
as
the
primal
sources
of
moral
action,
at
least
insofar
as
these
are
considered
pre-rational
and/or
subliminal:
as
much
as
we
are
able
to
describe
and
even
understand
the
actions
of
individuals
as
driven
by
unconscious
processes,
these
acts
cannot
be
justified
by
either
these
impulses
or
by
themselves,
legal
as
well
as
practical
considerations
demanding
rational
agency
in
a
normative,
necessarily
discursive
context
(Dijksterhuis,
2008;
Lamme,
2010,
Swaab,
2010;
for
a
critical
assessment
see:
Bakhurst,
2008;
Habermas,
2005;
Visser
&
Wansink
(in
print)).
Others
have argued that both emotion and intuition are – in defiance of
folk psychology – anything but irrational, but in fact important
sources of information about ourselves, others and the world at
large. In this neo-stoic version, emotions and intuitions are
considered both as knowledge-in-itself and as based on well-informed
(moral) reflection. Learning how to think and reflect would then not
only link individual cognition to a healthy public sphere, but
enhance our personal and interpersonal, moral and physio-psychic
well-being (Nussbaum, 2006).
If
the
Dutch
minister
of
Education
really
wants
to
stimulate
'civic
education',
enhance
active
participation
in
a
'multicultural
and
complex
society',
and
make
the
Netherlands
'one
of
the
leading
knowledge-based
economies
in
Europe',
she
would
be
well
advised
to
stimulate
schools
to
work
out
a
transformative
or
procedural
curriculum
that
focuses
not
on
knowledge-as-such
but
more
on
the
procedures
by
which
different
knowledges
are
made
and
unmade.
Attaining
a
more
advanced
level
of
critical
thinking
would
not
merely
help
young
people
prepare
for
the
'knowledge-based
economy'
of
the
21st
century,
but
could
help
them
find
their
ways
in
a
complex
world
that
has
moved
beyond
historical
certainties.
The
most
feasible
way
to
do
so
would
be
for
schools
to
develop
a
curriculum
that
would
opt
for
enhancing
thinking
by
means
of
general
scientific
literacy.
2.
Scientific
literacy:
a
curriculum
for
thought
When
the
Dutch
government
was
still
trying
to
press
more
girls
and
boys
to
choose
a
career
in
science,
their
primary
objective
was
not
emancipatory
but
plainly
economical:
innovation
and
growth
were
expected
to
take
off
in
the
techno-scientific
and
medical
arena.
Even
though
that
seems
not
congruent
with
fact,
those
schools
that
have
successfully
taken
up
this
task
'sell'
their
programs
for
intensified
science-studies
in
the
same
terminology.
Sending
your
child
to
a
'Technasium'
or
one
of
the
so-called
'Omniversum-schools'
– two
varieties
of
schools
offering
extended
science
-
will
enhance
their
perspectives
on
a
scientific
study
as
well
as
on
the
labor-market.
'Thinking
scientifically'
is
thus
seen
as
an
end
in
itself,
not
as
a
means
to
other
– pedagogical
or
political-
ends.
Interestingly,
a
third
group
of
schools
is
busy
implementing
'scientific
literacy'
(Wetenschapsoriëntatie),
a
more
general
program
for
intensified
training
in
research
in
and
reflection
on
all
sciences,
including
social
sciences
and
the
humanities.2
Although
this
'movement'
also
justifies
herself
as
instrumental
for
the
'knowledge-based
society',
she
at
least
acknowledges
the
existence
of
different
sciences
and,
hence,
of
different
knowledges.
Conceived,
not
so
much
as
an
alternative
subject
but
as
an
integral
part
of
the
whole
curriculum
of
middle-
and
high-school
education,
this
type
of
scientific
literacy
can
serve
us
as
a
model
for
a
modest
curricular
reform.
More
than
'scientific
literacy'
in
the
strict
sense
– knowledge
about
the
hallmarks
of
technical
science
– this
general
scientific
literacy
aims
to
gradually
develop
skills
and
values
of
inquiry
in
all
the
fields
of
knowledge
taught
at
schools
(languages,
sciences,
humanities
and
the
arts),
explicitly
addresses
the
historicity
and
contextuality
of
scientific
knowledge-claims
and
thus
helps
the
gradual
advancement
critical
and
higher
order
thinking
skills
(vgl.
Holbrook
&
Rannikmae,
2009).
Possibilities
and prerequisites
Deanne
Kuhn
has
shown
that
and
how
children
who
are
led
to
systematically
engage
in
sciences
– all
kinds
of
sciences
– can
learn
to
use
complex
argumentative
strategies
and
develop
other,
more
mature
'epistemic
stances'.
If
taught
well,
(general)
scientific
literacy
does
help
enhance
higher
order
thinking
skills,
an
effect
that
can
be
measured
with
children
operating
at
different
cognitive
levels
and
seems
independent
of
SES
(Kuhn,
1999;
2005;
2010).
Transferring
these insights to Dutch schools would ask for a only a slight change
in the standard subject-based curriculum, with minor readjustment of
the means of instruction. What it would ask for, however, is a great
deal op faith: students can learn how to think, and teachers are
capable of helping every individual child to master such advanced
thinking skills. Schools that show optimism about their students
performing at academic levels make their students perform better, a
fact that again shows to be independent of SES. The variable best
predicting the effects of this 'academic optimism' seems to be
teacher self-efficacy, i.e. the conviction that they can and do
(collectively) make a difference (Hoy, Tarter & Woolfolk Hoy,
2006, Smith & Hoy 2007). Another prerequisite for the curricular
change we are proposing here seems to be, then, that it is 'owned',
i.e. developed, implemented, evaluated and adjusted by a group of
enthusiastic, academically trained teachers and is explicitly made
fit to the needs and levels of their students and the dominant
features of their school-culture (Hargreaves & Zirley, 2009).
Aims
If
the
primary
aim
of
general
secondary
education
is
that
children
become
knowledgeable
and
skilled
to
the
extent
that
they
can
successfully
enter
higher
education,
Dutch
schools
are
failing:
all
universities
have
to
offer
students
in
their
first
years
extra
courses
to
catch
up
with
what
is
expected
of
them.
Simply
heightening
the
standards
of
secondary
school
exams
or
reinvigorating
the
old
Idea
of
Bildung
will
not
prevent
that
40%
of
Dutch
student
never
graduate,
but
it
is
obvious
that
something
needs
to
be
done.
Thus
far,
we
have
argued
that
secondary
schools
should
shift
focus
from
knowledge-as-such
to
the
production
of
knowledges.
By
means
of
such
a
procedural
curriculum,
young
people
could
be
helped
to
develop
the
skills
and
'epistemic
stances'
necessary
to
successfully
participate
in
a
'knowledge-based',
pluralist
democracy.
We
figure
that
'academic
optimism'
could
also
help
bridge
the
gap
between
secondary
and
tertiary
education,
but
do
not
take
that
as
our
primary
aim.
To
the
rather
poor,
primarily
content-driven
aims
of
general
secondary
education
we
add
that
we
expect
17/18-year
old
student
entering
higher
education
to
- Be knowledgeable in the subjects they have chosen, to the extent that they can reproduce, apply and reflect upon a selected range of facts, procedures, theories and paradigms hold end held in these disciplines
- Be skilled in the subjects they have chosen, to the extent that they can demonstrate how to gather and process information into 'justified valid belief' according to the rules applicable in these disciplines.
- Show able to plan for, execute, analyze and present the results of a scientific experiment or research on BA-level, written in English and annotated in APA
- Show able to clearly express his or her opinion on social, political or ethical issues, actively considering a variety of possible positions, intellectual and religious traditions and using sound argumentative strategies.
- Show able to reflect upon his or her own biography and current state as a 'knowing subject', which includes awareness about one's own preferences and weaknesses concerning learning-strategies.
Sequence
and Scope
In
order for students to meet these ambitious demands, schools can leave
their existing curriculum and school-organization largely intact.
Essential is, first, that teachers raise their levels of expectancy
by introducing more opportunities to learn the same content-mater by
addressing higher order thinking skills (see par. 3). Secondly, they
would do wise to cooperatively work out a sequence for making
students succinctly engage in practical research in different fields
of knowledge (see appendix A). Needless to say that these activities
should not be conceived as 'add-ons' to an already loaded curriculum,
but can easily supplant content-matter.
Tendency
will be strong to break down the goals stipulated above in three or
four distinct levels of skills and knowledge that seem adequate for
certain age groups (vgl. SLO, 2008). As much as this will prove
practicable, strict sequencing will deny the obvious facts that
students and their brains develop individually, not statistically.
Sequence and assessment-practices should thus leave room for
flexibility, teachers readjusting expectancy to what they actually
perceive to be a child's zone of proximal development. Starting in
year one (age 11-12) with relatively easy and straightforward,
strongly guided experiments and assignments, teachers will typically
plan for an inductive, Lockean, simple-to-complex curriculum, laying
the foundations for ever more complex and open, self-regulated
research experiences. In order to cater for the needs of different
learners, they should not shun, however, from introducing
alternative, more deductive or whole-to-part approaches, such that
immerse children into more complex problems and procedures (see par.
3).
For
what the more reflective parts of the curriculum are concerned, a lot
of teachers and curriculum-developers seem to assume that reflection
on learning and learning-styles 'typically' belongs to middle school
education, where the foundations of 'serious study' are lain.
Conversely, reflection on knowledge, society, ethics, etc. is usually
assigned to high-school, when students are supposed to have reached
Piaget's stage formal-operational thinking. From our own experience
as teachers we infer, however, that a) children in their middle years
are very well capable of 'doing philosophy', albeit, indeed, mostly
on an intuitive, non-reflexive base, and that b) a lot of
particularly smart children who have made it to high-school lack
effective strategies to learn and are in considerable need of an
extended program of 'learning how to learn' (Wientjes, 2008). We
therefore strongly recommend that elements of reflection on both
learning and knowledge are woven into the curriculum of general
secondary education from year five or six, backwards to year one.
Integration
and Articulation
At
the
2007
Nexus
conference,
organized
around
the
theme
“What
is
an
educated
man?”,
an
anonymous
visitor
held
a
clear
and
compelling
plea
for
epistemology
as
a
mandatory
subject
in
all
secondary
schools.
What
he
and
others
might
not
have
been
aware
of,
is
that
such
is
the
case
in
quite
a
lot
of
schools
already.
Unlike
British
grammar
schools,
who
have
introduced
the
new
subject
of
'critical
thinking'
as
an
option
for
the
A-levels,
the
2000
schools
worldwide
who
offer
the
International
Baccalaureate
Diploma
Program
(IBDP)
are
held
to
organize
a
mandatory
2-year
course
on
Theory
of
Knowledge.
Ideally,
this
course
is
constructed
in
such
a
way
that
it
questions
the
foundations
of
all
subjects
taught
at
school,
while
all
succinct
subjects
are
held
to
refer
back
to
ToK
and
the
knowledge-issues
at
stake
in
their
own
field
of
study
(IBO
2008).
A
persistent trait of the 'grammar of schooling' is that knowledge is
compartmentalized in subjects, each of which studies fragmented
realities from distinct points of view (see e.g. Dewey 1916: 134ff).
Criticism of this pretty unnatural way of getting to know a complex
world is as old as the opposition against reforms has been strong.
Giving in to both sides, we strongly recommend to devise scientific
literacy not, or not only as a single subject, but, in the fashion of
the IB, weave elements of scientific practice and scientific thinking
into the curricula of more, if not all subjects.
If
every subject group works out a vertical curriculum for its own
field, it is generally feasible for any team of teachers to compare
these curricula horizontally and make sure that the total body of
knowledge and skills learned in different classroom show a minimum of
coherence and common orientation. In an ideal world, organizing
curriculum-meetings like these do not only help establish
indispensable group-identities and value-orientations, but may also
prove fruitful for developing cross-curricular thought and action and
a rationalized approach to skills trained in more than one
subject(group) (vgl. Romberg & Price, 1983).
What
subject-matter
is
concerned,
we
believe
it
is
up
to
schools
and
subject-groups
to
decide
if,
when
and
how
additional
content
that
might
add
to
reflexivity
is
implemented
in
the
curriculum.
For
history
teachers,
for
example,
it
wouldn't
prove
much
of
a
problem
to
pay
more
attention
to
the
historicity
of
science
and
thought,
nor
for
language-teachers
to
reflect
upon
the
meanings
of
language
and
introduce
literature
as
a
distinct
way
of
knowing.
Especially
non-denominational
schools
have
to
consider,
however,
if
and
how
they
are
going
to
introduce
comparative
religious
studies,
humanistic
ethics,
critical
media
studies,
or
the
like.
Even
if
scientific
literacy
is
considered
a
means
to
a
civic
end,
there
are
good
reasons
for
explicit
instruction
of
the
principles
and
ethics
of
scientific
thinking
and
inquiry,
or
indeed
of
their
history,
philosophy
and
sociology
(De
Vos
&
Genseberger,
2000;
Hodson,
2009).
Schools
could
therefore
consider
to
supplant
the
shallowly
profiled
but
mandatory
subject
of
Science
for
Public
Understanding
(SPU,
in
Dutch
ANW)
by
-indeed-
a
more
ambitious
course
in
the
history
and
philosophy
of
science
and
/
or
epistemology.
The
extent to which schools actually contribute to the success of
individual students might be not as large as teachers think or hope
for, but the effect of two external factors seem well-established:
teaching strategies and school culture. As difficult it might seem to
make teachers change their professional habits (see par. 3), it shows
even harder to reform the intangible culture of learning reigning
within the walls of any institution. In order for a
science-curriculum to work out the way, schools could try to make
science, scientific endeavor, scientific ethics, critical and
open-minded thinking, etc. sensible, visible throughout the whole
curriculum, if not the whole building. That's why schools are
well-advised to link up more closely with universities and private
institutions nearby in order to provide for authentic
research-opportunities, incite students to attend pre-university
courses, participate in quests and contests, show parents and others
the results of their children's endeavors, in short, try to foster a
culture of truly academic learning.
Implementation
and evaluation
A
considerable but declining number of Dutch teachers at secondary
levels are academically trained. Observing that 'doing research' is
steadily becoming a more stable part of the curriculum of
non-academic, so-called second-level teacher training, we can assume
that a majority of secondary school teachers has at least a notion of
what research comprises of. In order, however, to make scientific
literacy one of the pillars of the secondary curriculum and help
students to use those experiences to learn how to think, schools and
teachers may be in need of some extra training. Ideally, teacher
training institutions would pay due attention to the teaching of
thinking, problem- or research-based pedagogy and – generally- the
art of differentiation. As long as even freshmen teachers seem at a
loss when asked to organize any of this, a large market of
educational advisers and independent teacher-trainers may help
schools and teachers out with planning and implementing the new
curriculum, as with the enhancements of the appropriate instructional
designs.
As
much as planning will typically start with the goals to be reached in
year five or six, the actual implementation of a curriculum for
scientific literacy will most likely start in year one. This means,
first of all, that teachers working at junior-levels and those at
senior levels have to bridge any gap that might exist and take
responsibility for a common curriculum. Within the context of any
school, not only the planning-sessions mentioned before, but also
in-company-training, collective development of instructional material
might serve pedagogical, but no less social and (micro)political
needs. Secondly, teachers in the upper grades need not necessarily
wait until the first group has reached age 15: apart from being
crucial to the initial processes of planning the whole curriculum,
they are well advised to start experimenting with complex research
activities and the more philosophical add-ons straight from the
beginning. These may not yield the expected returns, students failing
the necessary background, but will – therefore - help teachers set
goals and develop criteria for what is to be taught and practiced in
the junior levels.
Secondary
schools in The Netherlands generally work with norm-referenced
systems of assessment, numbered grades on a scale of ten (and two
decimals!) creating a strong illusion of objectivity. If reflection
on processes of learning and gathering knowledge are indeed the focus
of our science curriculum, then the development of
criterion-referenced systems of assessment would better suit our aims
and objectives. In comparison, however, criterion-referencing seems
more valid but less reliable than norm-referencing, which makes
grade-inflation ('to the top') more than a theoretical possibility
(Freeman & Miller, 2001; Ratcliffe, 1992; Wikstrroem, 2005). In
order to prevent this, and to make sure Dutch teachers gather ample
experience with this 'strange' system of assessment, developing
schools would do well to bide considerable time with this topic;
criterion-referencing does work, but only if teachers within any
schools have time to practice and exchange and thus make explicit
what exactly the boundaries of the different (grade-)levels are (vgl.
Visser, 2010).
According
to the latest creed, school reform ought to be 'evidence-based'. Even
if (double blind) experimenting with groups of children seems not
always feasible or indeed ethical, schools embarking on a road to
reform would of course do well to systematically register the changes
they (fail to) provoke. We therefore strongly advise schools
implementing our science-curriculum to get in contact with
universities nearby and/or have some of their teachers trained to do
so-called action research. The latter will hopefully serve the same
need as any validated empirical research done by university students
or experts, namely to help further precisize and readjust the
curriculum to the needs of schools and students, and add to the
self-efficacy and the ambition of teachers involved in it (vgl. Ponte
e.a., 2004; Zwaneveld & Tillmans, 2010). At the same time, it
could help schools to get and keep in close contact with higher
education institutions, which could help lower the thresholds to
actively benefit from each other's knowledge and services (see
above).
3.
Summary
&
Discussion
Alderik
Visser
Utrecht
/ Leiden / Rotterdam, September 2010
year
|
languages
|
sciences
|
humanities
|
arts
|
Knowledges
(integrated)
|
6
5
|
Teaching
for the final test
Deductive,
whole-to-part learning in selected fields of study
Autonomous,
semi-academic research in some fields of study
Approaches
to learning
|
Theory
of Knowledge / History, philosophy and sociology of science
|
|||
4
3
|
Content-matter
of different subjects largely intact
subject-specific
concepts practiced in subject-related and / or integrated
real-life problems
Semi-autonomous
research in the different fields of study
Approaches
to learning
|
Critical
Media Studies
|
|||
2
1
|
Structure
and content-matter of different subjects intact
introduction
to the main concepts and procedures of subject(groups)
Guided
instruction on research in the all different fields of study
Approaches
to Learning
|
Comparative
religious studies
|
|||
Appendix
A: a curriculum for epistemic growth
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